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                          Smart Drugs & Nutrients
                     by Ward Dean and John Morgenthaler
                           MCMXC B&J Publications

       Transcribed to the electronic media by Swedish Infomania 1995

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Introduction

Science is changing our understanding of the human brain and of human
intelligence. There is a whole new concept of what intelligence is and why
some people are more intelligent than others. Scientists no longer believe
that our intelligence is determined strictly by genetics. The concept of a
fixed intelligence is a limiting belief and turns out to be untrue. Now we
know that you can develop and increase your intelligence.

There is good reason to do so.

As we are exposed to a world of constantly increasing complexity and
competition, faced with the information explosion and sensory overload,
memory sharpness and increased thinking ability become imperative. People
no longer do the same job for their entire lives. Many career paths require
that people continue to educate themselves. Some professions require
regular testing to establish that professional people are staying abreast
of new developments. A corporation may be structured so that employees must
compete intellectually for promotions and raises. The competition in these
situations is every bit as real and intense as the competition on the
playing fields. We believe that more and more business people and scholars
are looking for the kind of "edge" that athletes get from science.

This field of research is exploding. We know that we have not been able to
find all of the important intelligence increasing materials. We know that
even though we searched the largest computer database in the world, we have
missed some important data about the substances we do write about. If we
have left out a substance that you know increases intelligence, or if we
have overlooked critical data about the cerebroactive materials included in
this book, please write to us as soon as possible with your experiences or
references.

Please fill out the reader response card at the front of this book and mail
it to us, so that we can keep you informed about new editions of this book
and new resources for intelligence enhancement.

We would also like to hear about your experiences with cognitive
enhancement substances. This information will help us keep our readers
better informed. The reader response card has space for your comments, or
you can send us a letter outlining your experiences. You can write to us
care of:

B&J Publications          [Note: This address is no longer valid. Please use
P.O. Box 483               the CERI address given at the end of this text.]
Santa Cruz, CA 95061-0483

We look forward to hearing from you.


Age-Related Mental Decline

In other countries, diseases such as Alzheimer's, Korsakoff's syndrome,
organic brain syndrome, and non-Alzheimer's senility are treated with drugs
that are not available here. Other substances that are available in the
U.S. have shown some efficacy against these diseases, but doctors here may
be unfamiliar with the research.

At this time it is difficult to predict which people with senility will
show positive results. In some of the studies we cite, individuals have
exhibited remarkable improvement with a single drug or combination of
drugs. We believe that individual biochemical differences may cause the
inconsistency of results. In other words, each individual showing signs of
senility may respond to a unique combination of drugs. Although
shotgun-type drug combinations may be beneficial for one person, the same
combination might adversely affect someone else. Thus, it is essential to
work with a knowledgeable physician. Use this book's index and the section
titled The Use of Cerebroactive Substances to custom-design a combination
drug program for the person with senility. Start as soon as possible. The
sooner the treatment is begun, the greater is the likelihood of beneficial
results.

Recreational Drugs and Mental Decline

Regular users of alcohol, cigarettes, or recreational drugs such as cocaine
or marijuana often complain of declining mental functioning. Alcoholics and
pot users often have problems with short-term memory loss. Cigarettes
adversely affect mental functioning by greatly reducing the oxygen supply
to the brain by causing not only short-term vasoconstriction, but also by
tying up red blood cells with carbon monoxide (greatly reducing the oxygen
capacity of the blood). This leads to premature atherosclerosis, as well as
a compensatory increase in the number of red blood cells. This causes
"thicker" blood, further worsening blood flow and oxygen delivery. Don't
smoke!! Cocaine abusers often lose their ability to concentrate. This is
particularly ironic since many people begin using cocaine for its ability
to help the user concentrate for long periods of time. Chronic abuse,
however, brings on paradoxical effects. The drugs and nutrients listed in
this book can be of great help in combating the deleterious effects of
recreational drugs. However, if you abuse any drugs, we strongly recommend
that you quit, or at least severely reduce your consumption.

Is All This Legal?

The fact that there are effective cognitive enhancing compounds being
manufactured today is good news. It is even better news that they can be
purchased legally. How this is done, and what complications or
qualifications may enter into such purchases is what this section is about.

Over-The-Counter Cognition Enhancement

First, the easy part. Some of the compounds we write about can be purchased
over-the-counter from any source that specializes in the sale of
nutritional supplements, including the ones we list in appendix A.

FDA Approved Drugs

Other compounds listed are FDA approved drugs and can be purchased in this
country with a prescription. It is important to understand, however, what
"approved" and "unapproved" mean in FDA terminology. Under the Federal
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act, a drug approved for marketing may be
labeled, promoted, and advertised by the manufacturer only for those uses
for which the drug's safety and effectiveness have been established, and
which the FDA has approved. These are commonly referred to as "approved
uses." This means that adequate and well-controlled clinical trials have
documented these uses, and the results of the trials have been reviewed and
approved by the FDA.

It is important to know that the FDA has no category for cognitive
enhancement compounds. If a drug is to be approved at all, it must be
approved for the treatment of a known disease such as Alzheimer's disease,
multiple-infarct dementia, or senility.

There are many safe and effective drugs not approved for use in the U.S.
Sometimes it is because the pharmaceutical company knows that it simply
could not make a profit after going through the extraordinarily expensive
and lengthy process required to obtain FDA approval. Another reason drugs
might not receive approval is that pharmaceutical companies have little
interest in working on any drug that cannot be patented. There are several
natural compounds (such as choline) discussed in this book which have
cognitive enhancement effects. But no one can patent a natural compound.
Without a patent, the pharmaceutical company that spends the money to get
FDA approval for a drug will then have to compete with other pharmaceutical
companies who did not spend the approval money, but can now sell the
approved drug.

Physicians should be aware that by FDA law they have the right to prescribe
any medication that they believe will be helpful to their patient. It does
not matter if the prescription represents a use for the drug that is not
the FDA approved use.

Physicians are often reluctant to prescribe drugs for cognitive enhancement
since it is not an approved use. In April,1982, the FDA issued a bulletin
which included an important policy statement. The statement clarified the
questions about prescribing drugs for "unapproved" uses, stating that
physicians may prescribe drugs for unapproved uses in order to provide the
best possible health care to the American public. The bulletin clearly
stated that the use of "approved" drugs for "unapproved" uses is not only
legal, but is one of the primary means of therapeutic innovation. It also
said that, "valid new uses for drugs already on the market are often first
discovered.through serendipitous observations and therapeutic innovation."
The term "unapproved uses" is misleading. It would appear that the FDA
approves of the use of drugs for "unapproved" uses. Please see appendix F
for a reprint of this section of April,1982 issue of the FDA Drug Bulletin.

Overseas Drugs By Mall

The physician also has the right to prescribe drugs which have not been
approved for any use in the U.S. Also, although it is not widely known, a
July, 1988 FDA ruling now makes it quite legal for individuals to import
effective drugs used elsewhere but not available in the U.S. The
importation and mail shipment of a three month supply of medications, for
personal use, is now legal as long as they are regarded as safe in other
countries. The new ruling, FDA pilot guidelines chapter 971, was made as a
result of heavy pressure from AIDS political action groups, which insisted
that AIDS sufferers were denied access to potentially lifesaving substances
that were widely used abroad but were still unapproved for use in the U.S.
You will find the text of these new FDA guidelines in appendix G.

News of the FDA's policy change appeared in the New York
Times as follows:

     F.D.A EXPANDS EARLIER STAND BY ALLOWING MAILING OF DRUGS.

     WASHINGTON, July 25 - When the Food and Drug Administration announced
     on Saturday that it would allow Americans to import unapproved drugs
     from abroad in small quantities, it was formalizing its longstanding
     practice of looking the other way when travelers brought back foreign
     drugs.
          More significantly, it also stated for the first time that it
     would permit routine mail shipments of such drugs, making them
     potentially available to vastly more people than the few who venture
     abroad in search of treatments.
          Certainly, both officials and critics agree that timely
     completion of human trials of potential drugs to determine which are
     truly effective is more important in the long run than the importation
     of unproved drugs. Despite recent pledges by officials from the F.D.A.
     and the National Institutes of Health to speed up the process of drug
     evaluation, there remains a wide gap in perceptions about the
     realistic chances of finding useful treatments soon.
      The new policy was the direct result of pressure from desperate AIDS
     patients, who have only one approved treatment available in the
     country, AZT, or azidothymidine, which is too toxic for many patients
     to take for long periods...

In cases where overseas shipments are stopped by U.S. Customs (which should
be rare), the recipient will be sent a standard form letter and will have
to sign a statement stating that the drug is for their personal use, and
also to provide the government with the name of the physician responsible
for his or her treatment with the product in the shipment.

The FDA has made it clear, however, that it will not tolerate "commercial
promotion" of unapproved drugs to U.S. citizens by overseas companies taking
unfair advantage of the situation to promote unproven drugs to people in
the U.S..

There are no guarantees that the FDA will not change its mind about the
mail importation policy and act to reverse it. But at the time of this
writing this is how the law and FDA policy stand. We have provided a list
of mail-order sources in appendix A. We hope that the overseas companies
listed will have the good sense to comply with all the FDA regulations:
supplying only items which have been proven to be safe and have no abuse
potential, and not commercializing their services (which we take to mean
they must not advertise but merely supply to informed individuals). This
will decrease the chances that there could be FDA action against them.

The Use of Cerebroactive Compounds

Although most of the substances discussed in this book are remarkably free
from adverse side effects, combinations of these substances alone or with
other nutrients or drugs you may be taking may have unknown adverse
effects. We recommend consulting a knowledgeable physician before embarking
on a cognition enhancement program of your own.

If you are going to experiment with any of these compounds, we recommend
that you try only one new compound at a time. This is the only way that you
will be able to distinguish the effects of the compounds.

We discuss dosages for each of the compounds we write about. Please think
of these dosages as general guidelines. The dosages here have been derived
for the "average" person, based on statistical findings in the research.
However, you are not average. Your biochemistry is unique to you, and only
you can determine how much of which compound is optimal for you. Studies
show that for any particular compound, an optimum dosage may vary from
person to person by as much as 20 times.

Remember Goldilocks? Well, the key to using cognition enhancers is to find
the dose that's not too much and not too little, but "just right."

"A bell-shaped dose-effect relationship is a typical feature of all drugs
acting on cognitive processes" (Pepeu, 1989). The graph above is an example
of a bell-shaped dose response curve for pramiracetam. This means that for
each compound there is an optimum dose, and above or below this dosage, the
effects are not as profound. The same is probably true for most of the
compounds discussed in this book. Furthermore, excessively high doses of
some compounds may actually produce reverse effects (Heiby,1989).

Kenneth and Lois Anderson write in their excellent book, "Orphan Drugs",
"An effective individual dosage is often established in the same way that
one makes an individual adjustment in the amount of coffee or tea consumed
during the day-by the trial-and-error technique sometimes called titration.
Most people learn through experience to estimate the amount of coffee or
tea they can consume without discomfort and adjust their daily caffeine
beverage intake accordingly. The same process works for many medications."

Subtle or even major improvements in cognitive function can sometimes go
unnoticed. One way of measuring changes in your own cognitive abilities is
to ask your friends and family. Tell them you are experimenting with some
new technologies and you would like them to watch you a little more
closely. This will get you a more objective measurement than you could get
on your own.

When using cognitive enhancers pay particular attention to changes in any
of the following: alertness, mental energy, and concentration, being able
to concentrate for longer periods at a time, ability to memorize material,
productivity, organization, and planning ability, verbal memory, problem
solving ability, mood, sexual desire, overall health, and performance at
intellectual games such as chess.

Synergy

In one fascinating 1981 study, a team of researchers led by Raymond Bartus
administered the cognition enhancers choline and piracetam to a strain of
aged lab rats noted for their age-related memory decline. "Those subjects
given only choline (100 mg/kg) did not differ on the behavioral task from
control animals administered vehicle (placebo). Rats given piracetam ( 100
mg/kg) performed slightly better than control rats... but rats given the
piracetam/choline combination ( 100 mg/kg of each) exhibited retention
scores several times better than those given piracetam alone. In a second
study it was shown that twice the dose of piracetam (200 mg/kg) or choline
(200 mg/kg) alone, still did not enhance retention nearly as well as when
piracetam and choline (100 mg/kg of each) were administered together." This
is synergy, a process commonly found in nature where the whole is greater
than the sum of the parts (Fuller,1975).

One mouse model study found that combining two memory increasing drugs
allowed for a reduction in the optimal dose by 66.2% to as much as 95.7%
(Flood, 1985). Another similar study conducted by the same team found 95%
reduction in optimal dosages when two drugs were combined (Flood,1983).

These studies and the ones we cite below were published by Flood and the
late Arthur Cherkin. Cherkin, a prolific drug researcher, told us about an
unpublished mouse experiment he conducted combining piracetam with
Hydergine. His results indicated that the optimal dose of this combination
could be 5 times less than the optimal dosage of each when used alone.

The good news here is that taking Hydergine and piracetam together may be
far less expensive than taking either alone. However, you must still
ascertain the optimum dose for yourself as per our previous instructions.

Taking Exams

If you are planning to use any of the substances we have discussed to
assist you in taking tests or examinations, we suggest that you follow some
rules.

Make certain that the substances you are using actually make you smarter.
If possible, purchase a workbook for the test you intend to take. Take a
sample test without the substances, then take another sample test with
them. Do this several times to be certain that you do feel smarter, think
more clearly, and do better on the test with your choice of substances.

Remember that more is not necessarily better. Use the information in the
rest of this section to ascertain the optimum substance or combination of
substances and their correct dosages.

Beware of potential problems. For example, you might choose to take Inderal
one and a half hours before a test in order to avoid having a fear response
during the testing. It has been reported that Inderal can make you
nauseated if taken on an empty stomach, especially with black coffee. Read
the precautions we include for each drug.

The research we've seen suggests that coffee may have some intelligence
lowering effects. Unless you are truly addicted and require coffee for
functioning, we recommend that you skip it during intellectually demanding
situations.

If you become familiar with the range of compounds available, you will be
able to choose among them for different uses. A perfect example is
vasopressin. One quick inhalation of vasopressin can clear your head and
sharpen your recall in ten seconds. This can be invaluable for situations
where you are required to be your sharpest on a moment's notice.

Other compounds, such as piracetam, will make learning new material much
easier. If you experiment and find which compounds work for you, you will
also become more creative, and far less stressed out on the job.

Nootropics: More Doctors Recommend

We are very excited about nootropics; a new class of brain-enhancing
substances. We believe that this development is a major advance in
neuroscience. The word nootropics was coined to describe substances that
improve learning, memory consolidation, and memory retrieval without other
central nervous system effects and with low toxicity, even at extremely
high doses (Giurgea, 1972). Doctors prescribe nootropics to millions of
people outside of the U.S. every year. Surprisingly, none of the nootropic
drugs have been approved in the U.S. A number of companies are attempting
or have attempted to receive approval from the FDA to sell newly developed
(and patented) nootropic drugs in the U.S., but so far without success.
Most of the people that we know who have tried nootropics such as piracetam
have become die-hard fans (see appendix D for testimonials). The nootropics
hold the most promise for people with Alzheimer's and other forms of
senility.

Although there is some disagreement in the scientific community as to which
substances are nootropics and which are not, we have included in this
section drugs that are most often referred to as nootropics in the
scientific literature.

Some Definitions

Before we begin to describe the uses and actions of the nootropics, let's
look at some "brain basics" - including some terms we will be using
frequently in this book.

Your mental and physical functions are partly governed by a group
of chemicals called neurotransmitters (Kaufinan,1986). These chemicals carry
impulses (messages) between nerve cells. Some are part of the cholinergic
system. This refers to the parts of the nervous system that use
acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.

Acetylcholine (ACh) plays an important role in memory and learning. It is
also used for control of sensory input signals and muscular control. ACh is
a stimulatory neurotransmitter and, when released by muscle nerves, makes
those muscles contract. Unfortunately, ACh production declines with age.
This leads to a loss of cognitive functioning which may be counteracted or
even prevented with the substances described in this book.

There are many other terms defined in the glossary in the back of this
book.

Pyrrolidone Derivatives

The most intriguing class of nootropics is called the pyrrolidone
derivatives. This class includes piracetam and its analogues oxiracetam,
pramiracetam, aniracetam, and some others. However, the mechanism by which
these have such a remarkable memory improvement effect is still uncertain.
Most studies suggest these drugs work by affecting the cholinergic system
in the brain, that is, the parts of the nervous system that use
acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.

       CH2CONH2
       |
       N   O
     /   \//      Piracetam, 2-oxo-pyrrolidine acetamide
    |     |
    |_____|

However, some recent observations show that some interactions take place
with the adrenal cortex and with adrenal steroids production. All four of
these compounds are inactive in laboratory animals which have had their
adrenal cortex removed or which have been treated with drugs that block the
adrenal cortex. We hope that when we learn how these drugs work, we will
also understand something more about the basic processes of memory storage
(Mondadori,1989).

The nootropics generally have an "inverted U response curve", which means
that more is not necessarily better. If you decide to use nootropics, you
must ascertain how much is the optimum amount for you (see The Use of
Cerebroactive Substances.) Combining two or more nootropics or using them
with other intelligence increasing substances may also reduce the dose that
is necessary for the optimum desired effects.

Piracetam (Nootropil)

Piracetam is reported to be an intelligence booster and CNS (central nervous
system) stimulant with no known toxicity or addictive properties. Piracetam
is inexpensive (under $0.85 per day) and available by mail (see appendix A.)
The subjective effect described by some people is that piracetam, "wakes up
your brain." You'll find more personal accounts of the effects of this
remarkable drug in the case histories and testimonials appendix. It's effects
and safety are so impressive that piracetam prompted the creation of a new
pharmaceutical category called nootropics.

The term nootropic comes from a Greek word meaning "acting on the mind".
Since the invention of piracetam by UCB Laboratories in Belgium, other
pharmaceutical companies have been scrambling to develop their own
nootropics. Some of them being researched now include; vinpocetine,
aniracetam, pramiracetam, and oxiracetam. As yet, there is no nootropic
compound that id FDA approved for sale in the US, but there is plenty of
motivation on the part of pharmaceutical companies to get that approval.
Financial analysts expect that the US market for these cognitive enhancers
will soon be in excess of $1-billion per year (Pelton, 1989).

Piracetam is very similar in molecular structure to the amino acid
pyroglutamate (see Pyroglutamate). Piracetam and pyroglutamate have the same
"base" chemical structure, the 2-oxo-pyrrolidine, but they differ by the side
chain. Pyroglutamate is 2-oxo-pyrrolidine carboxylic acid, and piracetam is
2-oxo-pyrrolidine acetamide.

Piracetam enhances cognition under conditions of hypoxia (too little oxygen),
and also enhances memory and some kinds of learning in normal humans. Outside
of the US, piracetam is used to treat alcoholism, stroke, vertigo, senile
dementia, sickle cell anemia, dyslexia, and numerous other health problems
(Pelton, 1989).

One of the most intriguing effects of piracetam is that it promotes the
flow of information between the right and left hemisphere of the brain
(Buresova, 1976). We know that communication between the two sides of the
brain is associated with flashes of creativity. This may also be the basis
for piracetam's usefulness in the treatment of dyslexia (Dilanni, 1985).

The effect of piracetam can be increased if taken with DMAE, centrophenoxine,
choline, or Hydergine. When choline and piracetam are taken together there is
a synergistic effect that causes a greater improvement in memory than the sum
of each when taken alone (Bartus, 1981).

We know of one person who claims she feels slightly agitated and depressed if
she takes piracetam for more than a week without a choline supplement. This
feeling is alleviated for her with a single dose of choline. It may be that
the piracetam causes acetylcholine to be used up more quickly and that the
choline helps to replace this important neurotransmitter.

Once fascinating study suggests that piracetam might increase the number of
cholinergic receptors in the brain. Older mice were given piracetam for two
weeks and then the density of muscarinic cholinergic receptors in their
frontal cortexes was measured. The researchers found that these older mice
had 30-40% higher density of these receptors than before. (Pilch, 1988).
Piracetam, unlike many other drugs, appears to have a regenerative effect on
the nervous system.

One theory of Alzheimer's disease is that the decline of intellectual
functions is partly caused by a decreased activity of the cholinergic system
in the brain caused by cell death and cell degeneration. The researchers in
the above study speculated that their findings could explain how piracetam
works and could also explain the finding of Bartus, et. al. regarding a
profound effect of combining choline with piracetam on memory enhancement of
old rats.

As mentioned previously the late drug researcher Arthur Cherkin related to us
that he believed the combination of Hydergine and Piracetam potentiate each
other by 5 times. This highlights the importance of adjusting the dosage when
multiple substances are taken because, some of these substances will cause
paradoxical effects when excessive amounts are taken.

Although piracetam is a derivative of GABA (gamma amino butyric acid, a
neurotransmitter), there is no evidence that piracetam works through the
GABAergic system. Some research even suggests GABA may even inhibit memory
and learning (Zhang, 1989).

Precautions: Piracetam may increase the effects of certain drugs, such as
amphetamines, psychotropics, and Hydergine, as stated. Adverse effects are
rare but include insomnia, psychomotor agitation, nausea, gastrointestinal
distress, and headaches. Piracetam has virtually no known toxicity or
contraindications.

Dosage: Piracetam is supplied in 400mg or 800mg capsules or tablets. The
usual dose is 2400 to 4800 mg per day in three divided doses. Some literature
recommends that the first two days a high "attack" dose should be taken.  We
have noticed that often when people first take piracetam they do not notice
any effect at all until they take a high dose (approximately 4000 to
8000mg). Thereafter, they may notice that a lower dosage is sufficient.
Piracetam takes effect within 30 to 60 minutes.

Sources: Piracetam is not sold in the US. It can be purchased over the
counter in Mexico or by mail form the sources listed in appendix A. Other
names include: Avigilen, Cerebroforte, Cerebrospan, Cetam, Dinagen,
Encefalux, Encetrop, Euvifor, gabacet, Genogris, Memo-Puren, Nootron,
Nootrop, Nootropil, Nootropyl, Normabrain, Norzetam, Pirroxil, Psycotron,
Stimucortex, and UCB-6215.

Aniracetam

Human studies have established that aniracetam is a powerful cognitive
enhancer. Study participants improved their scores on a number of
intelligence and memory tests (Saletu, 1980, 1984).

Aniracetam's chemical structure is similar to that of piracetam. Studies
comparing the two found that aniracetam is effective in treating a wider
range of problems than piracetam. Aniracetam is more powerful than
piracetam.

In animal experiments, aniracetam has been shown to have a protective
effect on the brain. Also, one study of 60 geriatric patients in a nursing
home found that aniracetam had a significant "revitalizing" effect
(Foltyn,1983).

The mechanism of action of aniracetam is not known. It does not appear to
act directly upon neurotransmitter systems such as GABA, catecholamines,
serotonin or acetylcholine (Cumin, 1982).

Hoffmann-La Roche holds the U.S. patent on aniracetam. The corporation was
attempting to gain FDA approval for Aniracetam, but has now assigned the
rights to foreign firms. One Hoffmann-La Roche research department
employee said that it. is very difficult to meet the FDA's criteria for
proving that a drug is effective for the treatment of Alzheimer's or
senility.

Individuals we know who have experimented with aniracetam have described
its effects as being very much like piracetam.

Precautions: Aniracetam has been tested in too few human studies to
establish precautions. Preliminary findings indicate that, like other
nootropics, it has little or no toxicity and few or no side effects.

Dosage: One study found that the maximum cognitive enhancement effect
occurred at 1000mg of aniracetam per day. Use of other cognitive
enhancement compounds concurrently will probably greatly reduce the optimum
dosage.

Sources: Aniracetam is not approved for distribution in any country as far
as we know. If it ever does become commercially available, U.S. doctors may
be able to legally prescribe it for whatever uses they see fit. Overseas
mail-order firms will probably offer aniracetam if it becomes available
outside of the U.S. Other names for aniracetam include: Draganon,
Ro 13-5057, and Sarpul.


Fipexide

A double-blind study involving 40 elderly people with severe cognition
disorders found that fipexide improved cognition and performance on a
number of different tests. One test used in the study measured several
different parameters including co-ordination, short term memory and
attention. The fipexide treated subjects reduced the time taken to complete
the task by an average of 22%, and decreased their errors by 46%. The
researchers calculated the average improvement in cognition at 60%
(Bompani,1986).

Fipexide has a mild dopamine-enhancing effect. Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter critical to fine motor coordination, immune function,
motivation and emotions. One study measured the hormonal responses of 10
elderly people taking fipexide, and found a small increase in dopamine
release (Rolandi,1984).

This substance may prove to be excellent for the learning process of
consolidating memory. Laboratory animals given Fipexide before learning new
material have improved recall later (Serra,1989). Unlike other nootropics,
giving Fipexide only during the recall period did not seem to improve
recall (Serra,1989, Valzelli,1986). Most nootropics are helpful in both
memory consolidation (learning) and recall.

Precautions: We have not found any information about adverse effects of
fipexide but this does not mean that there are none.

Dosage: The studies we have seen have used 600mg per day in three divided
dosages. The dose-response curve for fipexide is bell-shaped as has been
found for most other cognitive enhancement compounds.

Sources: We are not currently aware of any sources for fipexide. Other
names include: Attentil, BP 662, Vigilor.

Oxiracetam

Oxiracetam is another piracetam analog. One study conducted in Japan
compared the effects of piracetam and oxiracetam on normal mice learning a
new task called discrete two-way shuttle avoidance. The mice had to learn
to break a photobeam whenever they heard a warning stimulus in order to
avoid a mild electric shock. The optimum dose of oxiracetam for improving
learning was 30mg per kilogram of body weight, whereas the optimum dose of
piracetam was 100mg per kilogram (over three times as much)
(Kuribara,1988).

An amazing study done in Italy attempted to find teratological
(birth-defect causing) effects of oxiracetam. Pregnant mice were given
oxiracetam from the beginning of their pregnancies until they gave birth.
Controls were given saline solution instead. The offspring of the
oxiracetam treated mice showed no negative effects at birth. After one
month, the offspring of oxiracetam treated mice (remember that the
offspring themselves were not being given oxiracetam) showed signs of being
more curious than the offspring of the controls (Ammassari-Teule, 1988). At
three months, the oxiracetam offspring were performing significantly better
in memory tests than the offspring of the controls. Although this is not a
recommendation for pregnant women to take oxiracetam, it certainly hints at
exciting possibilities, and indicates that this is an amazing and non-toxic
cognitive enhancer.

After elderly people with dementia were given oxiracetam for three months,
several different tests were administered. The researchers wrote that
oxiracetam is a "vigilance-enhancing compound with some effects on
spontaneous memory," and that "in comparison with piracetam, oxiracetam
exhibits (a) greater improvement in memory factor" (Itil,1986).

Another oxiracetam study was performed on a large number of people. Three
hundred seven people were enrolled originally and 272 people completed the
study. Eight hundred milligrams of oxiracetam was given twice each day for
a total of twelve weeks to patients suffering from primary degenerative,
multi-infarct or mixed forms of dementia. They found significant
improvements in memory and concentration (Maina,1989).

In another study, oxiracetam and piracetam were each administered to 30
people (studying a total of 60 people). The dosage was a very large 6000mg
per day. After 60 days of treatment, the researchers concluded that the
tolerability of oxiracetam was excellent. They found that oxiracetam had
better therapeutic results than piracetam on both psychosomatic and
neurologic symptoms. Oxiracetam also seemed to decrease platelet
aggregation (Ferrero,1984).

Oxiracetam is currently being investigated by the SmithKline Beckman
Corporation for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. SmithKline is
conducting a multi-center study of oxiracetam. There are several other
companies involved with oxiracetam who see great potential for this
compound.

Oxiracetam was originally developed by the Italian pharmaceutical company,
ICF. The drug was introduced in Italy in 1988 and will probably be
introduced to further European markets in 1990. ICF licensed non-European
rights to Ciba-Geigy of Japan. The U.S. rights to it have recently been
assigned to SmithKline Beckman Corporation. We wonder if the diffculties
attendant to gaining FDA approval for nootropics is the cause of the
switch. Ciba-Geigy is working with Toyo Jozo (another Japanese Corporation)
to get approval for sale of oxiracetam in Japan within three years. They
hope for eventual world sales of $50 million (Barclays de Zoete Wedd
Chemicals Research, 1987, 1988, Japan Chemical Week,1987).

Precautions: Oxiracetam, like other nootropics, is non-toxic. It has been
shown to be safe in doses up to 2400mg (Itil, 1986).

Dosage: Oxiracetam is more potent than piracetam. In one study aimed at
finding the optimum dosage subjects were tested with 200mg, 400mg, 800mg,
1200mg, and 2400mg. The greatest improvements in cognitive function
occurred at doses of 1200mg and 2400mg per day.

Sources: SmithKline hopes to soon get approval for oxiracetam in the U.S.
for the treatment of Alzheimer's but we wouldn't hold our breath.
Oxiracetam is sold in Italy. Try contacting the overseas sources listed in
appendix A for access to this drug. Other names include: CT-848,
hydroxypiracetam, ISF-2522, Neuractiv, Neuromet.

Pramiracetam

The pharmaceutical from of Parke Davis has developed a variation of the
piracetam molecule called pramiracetam. Pramiracetam enhances the
functioning of the cholinergic system in a manner similar to that of
piracetam, but it is effective at much lower doses.

In one study, subjects with Alzheimer's showed significant intelligence and
memory enhancement with only 150mg per day of pramiracetam (Poschel, 1983).
Piracetam requires doses of 2.5 to 4.8 grams per day to get the same sort
of responses. In other words, pramiracetam is about 15 times more powerful
than piracetam.

In some research, pramiracetam has proven more effective than piracetam in
the treatment of Alzheimer's (Branconnier, 1983). Parke Davis is spending a
great deal of money to gain FDA approval for selling pramiracetam as a
treatment for Alzheimer's.

Precautions: Preliminary findings indicate that, like other nootropics, it
has little or no toxicity and no or few side effects (DeJong,1987).

Dosage: 75-1500mg (DeJong,1987, Turan,1983).

Sources: As of this writing, we have not found pramiracetam for sale in the
U.S. or overseas. When it does become available in other countries, U.S.
doctors can legally prescribe it for whatever use they see fit. Other names
include: CI-879.

Other Cognitive Enhancers

Pyroglutamate (PCA)

Pyroglutamate (also called 2-oxo-pyrrolidone carboxylic acid, or PCA) is an
amino acid naturally occurring in vegetables, fruits, dairy products, and
meat, and seems to be an important flavor constituent in these foods. It is
also normally present in large amounts in the human brain, cerebrospinal
fluid, and blood. Pyroglutamate is known to have a number of remarkable
cognitive-enhancement effects.

After oral administration, pyroglutamate passes into the brain through the
blood-brain barrier and stimulates cognitive functions. Pyroglutamate
improves memory and learning in rats, and has anti-anxiety effects in rats
(Pearson, 1988).

Pyroglutamate has also shown to be effective on alcohol induced memory
deficits in humans (Sinforiani, I985) and, more recently, in people
affected with multi-infarctual dementia (Scoppa, in press). In these
patients, the administration of pyroglutamate brought about a significant
increase of attention and an improvement on psychological tests
investigating short term retrieval (STR), long term retrieval (LTR) and
long term storage (LTS) of memory. A statistically significant improvement
was observed also in the consolidation of memory

In human subjects, pyroglutamate was compared with placebo in a randomized
double-blind trial for assessing its efficacy in treating memory deficits
in 40 aged subjects. Twenty subjects were treated with pyroglutamate and 20
with placebo over a period of 60 days. Memory functions were evaluated at
baseline and after 60 days of treatment by means of a battery made up of
six memory tasks. The results show that pyroglutamate is effective in
improving verbal memory functions in subjects affected by age related
memory decline (Grioli et al,1990).

In Italy, arginine pyroglutamate (one source of pyroglutamate) is used to
treat senility, mental retardation, and alcoholism (Anderson, 1987).
Arginine pyroglutamate is simply an arginine molecule combined with a
pyroglutamate molecule. Arginine alone does not produce cognitive
enhancement effects. It is likely that pyroglutamate is the active
ingredient of arginine pyroglutamate.

Some people use arginine, a single amino acid, to build muscle bulk and to
burn fat because the arginine causes the pituitary gland to release natural
growth hormone. Arginine pyroglutamate, in addition to having cognitive
enhancement effects, is an excellent growth hormone releaser because it is
carried more efficiently across the blood-brain barrier than arginine alone
(Filipo,1987).

Many people have told us that they like the effects of arginine
pyroglutamate a great deal. Some of the more interesting anecdotes are
listed in appendix D.

Precautions: No serious adverse effects from the use of pyroglutamate, or
from the use of arginine pyroglutamate, have been reported. Arginine and
pyroglutamate are amino acids found commonly in natural foods and consumed
by most people on a regular basis.

Dosage: 500mg to 1000mg per day for arginine pyroglutamate or somewhat less
if you are using straight pyroglutamate.

Sources: Health food and vitamin stores offer various products containing
pyroglutamate. Arginine pyroglutamate (one source of pyroglutamate) is
often bought for its growth hormone releasing effect, but is still
effective as a cognitive enhancer in this form. Source Naturals has a good
pyroglutamate product. Other names for pyroglutamate include:
alpha-aminoglutaric acid lactam, glutamic acid lactam, glutimic acid,
glutiminic acid, pyroGlu, and pyroglutamic acid. Other names for arginine
pyroglutamate include: Adjuvant, Piraglutargine, Arginine Pidolate.

Vinpocetine (Cavinton)

Vinpocetine is a powerful memory enhancer. It facilitates cerebral
metabolism by improving cerebral microcirculation (blood flow), stepping up
brain cell ATP production (ATP is the cellular energy molecule), and
utilization of glucose and oxygen.

What all this means is that vinpocetine has a lot of the effects of several
other cognitive enhancers all put together. In the above graph from a piece
of drug company literature, vinpocetine is shown to compare favorably to;
placebo, vincamine, papaverine, DHT (Hydergine), xanthinol nicotinate,
meclophenoxate, cinnarizine, niacin, cyclandelate, difenidol, and
ifenprodil.

Vinpocetine is often used for the treatment of cerebral circulatory
disorders such as memory problems, acute stroke, aphasia (loss of the power
of expression), apraxia (inability to coordinate movements), motor
disorders, dizziness and other cerebro-vestibular (inner-ear) problems, and
headache. Vinpocetine is also used to treat acute or chronic
ophthalmological diseases of various origin, with visual acuity improving
in 70% of the subjects.

Vinpocetine also is used in the treatment of sensorineural hearing
impairment.

The Gedeon Richter company of Hungary markets vinpocetine as Cavinton in
Europe. They have funded more than a hundred studies on vinpocetine, often
comparing its effects to other cognitive enhancers. The incidence of side
effects in humans using the drug orally is usually less than 1% of a
study's participants, with the unwanted effects disappearing with
discontinued use. One series of studies that Gedeon Richter conducted
involved 882 patients with neurological disorders ranging from stroke to
cerebral insufficiency. Significant improvements were found in 62% of the
patients. In one of the studies, cerebral insufficiency patients were asked
to memorize a list of 10 words. Without vinpocetine the subjects were able
to memorize an average of 6 words. After a month of treatment the average
went up to 10 words. Gedeon Richter promotes vinpocetine as the only drug
that improves cerebral metabolism (glucose and oxygen metabolism, hypoxia
(deficient blood oxygenation) tolerance, increased ATP concentration, and
increased norepinephrine and serotonin turnover), cerebral
microcirculation, and selectively increases blood flow to the brain
(improving blood flow to the impaired area without lowering blood flow to
other parts of the body) (Gedeon Richter product literature).

As if the medical uses of vinpocetine were not amazing enough, in one
double-blind crossover study, normal, healthy volunteers showed incredible
short term memory improvement an hour after taking 40mg of vinpocetine. The
volunteers took a computer-administered short term memory test called a
Sternberg Memory Scanning Test. The volunteers (all women between the ages
of 25 and 40) were shown one to three digits on a computer screen, then a
moment later were shown a long string of digits. The volunteers then
indicated whether any of the first digits appeared in the second long
string. The time the volunteer took to remember was then assessed. On a
placebo the women took an average of 700 milliseconds to respond when the
first set contained 3 digits. With vinpocetine they averaged under 450
milliseconds! (Subhan,1985).

Vinpocetine is a derivative of vincamine (which is an extract of the
periwinkle). Although they have many similar effects vinpocetine has more
benefits and fewer adverse effects than vincamine.

 +------------------------------------+--------------+
 | Symptoms                           |  Improved, % |
 +------------------------------------+--------------+
 | Dizziness                          |   77.1       |
 | Headache                           |   77.7       |
 | Numbness                           |   70.8       |
 | Depressed mood                     |   73.6       |
 | Irritability                       |   73.4       |
 | Mood instability                   |   66.4       |
 | Insomnia                           |   70.3       |
 | Instable blood pressure            |   86.9       |
 | Ataxia                             |   64.6       |
 | Paretic symptoms                   |   57.8       |
 | Aphasia                            |   60.0       |
 | Speech disturbances                |   55.7       |
 | Attention,concentration disorders  |   65.3       |
 | Memory disturbances                |   62.3       |
 | Slow thinking                      |   56.1       |
 | Nervousness                        |   82.7       |
 +------------------------------------+--------------+

Percentage of patients taking vinpocetine whose symptoms of cerebrovascular
disorders improved. (Redrawn from Gedeon Richter, Ltd. product literature.)

Precautions: Adverse effects are rare but include hypotension, dry mouth,
weakness, and tachycardia. Vinpocetine has no drug interactions, no
toxicity, and is generally very safe.

Dosage: One or two 5 mg tablets per day.

Sources: Vinpocetine is not sold in the U.S. It can be purchased by mail
order from the sources listed in the appendix. Other names include:
ARGH-4405, Cavinton, Ceractin.

Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALC)

This naturally occurring molecule is involved in the transport of fats into
the mitochondria, the energy producing part of all living cells, and is
found in some common foods such as milk. Acetyl-L-carnitine is related to
choline compounds, both chemically and in clinical effects.

In animal studies, long term administration of ALC preserves spatial memory
in aged rats (Ghirardi,1989), and improved learning and memory in mice and
rats (Bossoni,1986, Drago, 1986).

ALC may also have some important properties of protecting the brain from
the effects of aging. NA-sensitive glutamate receptors in the brain are
important for learning, but they decrease with age. One study of these
receptors in rat brains found that ALC has a neuroprotective and
neurotrophic (brain-cell nourishing) effect during aging.

Of great interest to researchers is ALC's ability to inhibit the formation
of lipofuscin in the brains of aged laboratory animals (Kohjimoto, 1988).
The buildup of these fatty deposits in the nerve cells is associated with a
reduction of cognitive powers.

In human studies, ALC has increased attention span and alertness in people
with Alzheimer's disease and other forms of senility. One study using
2000mg of ALC per day showed small but significant improvements in short
term memory in people with Alzheimer's (Rai, 1990). Another recent study,
reported at the l4th International Congress of Gerontology, found that ALC
increased brain levels of choline acetyltransferase. Low levels of this
enzyme are found in Alzheimer's patients, and is the major reason for their
severe deficiency of acetylcholine (Pearson,1990):

One study treated 20 patients with 1500mg ALC per day for six months. All
patients had involutional symptoms (the regressive changes in the body
occurring with old age). They were being treated by a rehabilitation
therapist for their concomitant decrease of motor activities. This long
term study found that the patients improved on measures of cognitive
ability, depression, and selfsufficiency. It also found an improvement in
social life and motor activity in these patients (Fiore,1989).

Another study gave 500mg of ALC per day to a group of 20 persons with
senility (20 others were given placebo). The researchers found a
significant improvement in several measures of senility (Bonavita, 1986).

In one study of hospitalized geriatric patients, ALC was shown to be
effective for the treatment of depression (Tempesta,1987).

Precautions: Studies on humans have not found any toxic effects or
significant side effects (Bonavita,1986, Tempesta, 1987). This does not
mean that there are no negative effects, it only means we have not seen any
evidence for negative effects.

Dosage: 1000mg-2000 mg per day in two divided doses.

Sources: As of this writing we know of no source in the U.S. for ALC,
although since it is a naturally occurring substance it could be legally
sold in health food stores (Snoswell, 1975). Therefore, we would expect
health food industry distributors to add this compound to their product
line very shortly after they find out about it from this book. ALC is
available in Europe and by mail order from the sources listed in appendix
A. Other names for ALC include: Alcar, Branigen, levacecarnine
hydrochlaride, n-acetyl-1-carnitine, Nicetile, and ST-200.

Caffeine

Caffeine is widely used for its stimulant properties. Most people think of
caffeine as improving their ability to think clearly, but a great deal of
the research shows that it actually does not improve human memory in a
variety of psychological tests.

One study administered 100mg doses of caffeine to college students and
found that their ability to remember lists of words that they had just
heard was diminished when they were given caffeine (Terry, 1986). In
another study, college students were given either 0, 2, or 4mg of caffeine
for every kilogram of their body weight. At the 2mg rate, that would be
127mg for a 140 lb. person. A 5 oz. cup of coffee can contain from 40 - 180
mg caffeine. Female students had a more difficult time of remembering lists
of words that were read to them slowly when they were given caffeine, and
otherwise no memory effects, good or bad were noted by the researchers
(Erikson, 1985). Thirty-two men were randomly given 0,125, 250mg of
caffeine and then given a recall test, a reaction time test, and something
called a Stroop test that involves confusing data. They performed poorly
with the high dose on the Stroop test. The researchers wrote, "Caffeine may
have a deleterious effect on the rapid processing of ambiguous or confusing
stimuli..." (Foreman,1989). This sounds like a description of modern life.

A 1983 study found that combining caffeine and alcohol actually slowed the
reaction time of 8 subjects. The caffeine and alcohol combination made the
subjects more drunk than alcohol alone (Oborne,1983). So much for the
popular myth that giving a drunk some coffee is a good way to get him or
her back on the road.

Coffee contains many chemicals other than caffeine. There are at least
three opiate-like compounds in coffee. This probably accounts for coffee
drinkers describing coffee as relaxing. These opiate-like compounds, which
are found even in decaffeinated coffee, may also in part account for
coffee's addictive qualities.

People desiring a mild, non-toxic stimulant that improves memory and
cognitive functions should read the nootropics section of this book.

Centrophenoxine (Lucidril)

Centrophenoxine is an intelligence booster and may also be an effective
anti-aging therapy. It has been shown to cause improvements in various
aspects of memory function and a 30% increase in life span of laboratory
animals (Hochschild, 1973).

One of the most widely recognized aspects of aging is the build-up of
lipofuscin in brain cells, heart, and skin (lipofuscin is the stuff that
"age spots" are made of). The buildup of lipofuscin in brain cells is
accompanied by a decline in mental functioning, and can ultimately lead to
the death of the affected neurons. Centrophenoxine removes lipofuscin
deposits (Nandy, 1966, 1978). It also repairs the synapses, which is where
the neurotransmitters are released from one nerve cell in order to convey
information to another.

Centrophenoxine breaks down into DMAE in the blood stream. Some researchers
have suggested that centrophenoxine's effects may be identical to DMAE's.
One study found that DMAE and Centrophenoxine had the same free radical
scavenging abilities (Nagy,1984). However, another piece of research
indicates that Centrophenoxine is better than DMAE at retarding lipofuscin
accumulation in a nematode (Zuckerman,1978).

Centrophenoxine has not proven effective in the treatment of Alzheimer's
(Branconnier,1983).

Precautions: Centrophenoxine should not be used by persons who are easily
excitable, have severe hypertension, or are subject to convulsions or
involuntary musculoskeletal movements. Centrophenoxine also should not be
used by nursing mothers. Adverse effects are rare, but include
hyperexcitability, insomnia, tremors, motion sickness, paradoxical
drowsiness and depression. If taken late in the day, centrophenoxine is
more likely to cause insomnia. There is no toxicity of centrophenoxine at
therapeutic doses.

Dosage: 1000 to 3000 mg per day. Centrophenoxine takes effect very quickly.
Many people notice an increase in alertness and a slight stimulation
effect.

Sources: Centrophenoxine is not sold in the U.S. It can be purchased over
the counter in Mexico or by mail order from the sources listed in appendix
A. Other names include: acephen, Analux, ANP 235, Brenal, Cellative,
Cerebon, Cerebron, Cetrexin, Clocete, clofenoxine, Helfergin, Licidril,
Lucidril, Luncidril, Lutiaron, Marucotol, meclofenoxane, meclofenoxate,
Mecloxate, Methoxynal, Proserout, Proseryl, Ropoxyl, and Telucidone.

Choline & Lecithin

Choline is the precursor of acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter that plays an
important role in memory). Choline improves memory by increasing the amount
of acetylcholine in the brain.

Choline can be found in several forms including choline bitartrate, choline
chloride, and phosphatidyl choline. Phosphatidyl choline (PC) is the active
ingredient of lecithin.

Choline, in its various forms, has been shown to improve performance by
humans in a variety of intelligence and memory tests.

PC has some unique effects as well. PC is a source of the materials from
which every cell membrane in your body is made. Since most of the important
electro-chemical activities in the cell arise from the membranes, PC is
very important. Nerve and brain cells in particular need large quantities
of PC for repair and maintenance. It also aids in the metabolism of fats,
regulates blood cholesterol, and nourishes the fat-like sheaths of nerve
fibers.

Precautions: Any compound that acts as a precursor to acetylcholine such as
choline, PC, or DMAE should not be used by people who are manic depressive
because it can deepen the depressive phase. Choline bitartrate and choline
chloride can sometimes cause a fishy odor or diarrhea. PC, however, does
not have either of these effects.

Dosage: 3 grams of choline per day in three divided doses. If you're taking
lecithin as a source of choline you may want to take more than the 3 grams,
because only part of the lecithin is choline. Often the label will provide
information on the quantity of choline per tablespoon. All forms of choline
should be taken with one gram per day of vitamin B-5 so that the choline
can be converted into acetylcholine.

Sources: Choline and lecithin are nutritional supplements that can be found
at health food or drug stores. Commercial lecithin usually contains other
oils and phosphatides besides phosphatidyl choline. Look at the label
before you buy, and make sure the product contains more than 30%
phosphatidyl choline. Lecithin easily becomes rancid, and there is no way
to guarantee that the lecithin you buy is fresh. The best way is to buy
your lecithin from a high-volume health food store which has a high product
turnover. A high quality lecithin will have a pleasant, slightly sweet
taste. TwinLab sells a product called PC-55 which is an excellent soy
lecithin product. Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw have designed a good tasting
drink mix that contains choline and all of the cofactors necessary for the
brain to manufacture acetylcholine. Appendix A lists sources for these
products.

AL721 (Egg Lecithin)

AL721 is the name given to a particular extract of egg yolk by Israeli
researchers. The 721 refers to 7 parts neutral lipids (oil), 2 parts
phosphatidyl choline and 1 part phosphatidyl ethanolamine.

AL721 has been used to treat senility and viral diseases such as AmS in
Israel. Several theories have been formulated to explain its action. The
researchers who developed AL721 suggest that the substance increases the
"fluidity" of cell membranes. They were looking for a fluidizing substance
after discovering that cell membranes in aged animals were more stiff than
in young animals. Since most of the electrochemical activity in the cell
originates on membranes, the fluidizing effect of AL721 could be stabilizing
and "de-aging" the cell's metabolism.

Others in the field have suggested that AL721 works similarly to soy
lecithin, improving intelligence and immune response by providing the raw
materials needed by the cell to manufacture and repair the membranes. Still
others call AL72I merely an expensive source of acetylcholine precursors.

Whether these theories are true or not, people with AIDS began to demand
AL721 after preliminary research by the Israeli team suggested that it
might alleviate some of the symptoms of AIDS. The researchers also gave
AL721 to a number of elderly people (reportedly including at least one
researcher's mother). These people were supposed to have reported improved
cognition with AL721. When AL721 became available in health food stores,
many people similarly began to report improved cognitive abilities with its
use. Of course, this evidence is anecdotal but these reports agree with the
many experiments using soy phosphatidyl choline to improve human cognition.

Precautions: Any compound that acts as a precursor to acetylcholine should
not be used by people who are manic depressive because it can deepen the
depressive phase.

Dosage: Like soy PC, AL721 is very safe. People with A75 have used as much
as 30 to 40 GRAMS a day of AL721. For cognitive enhancement, 2 to 10 grams
per day is probably the correct dose. All forms of choline should be taken
with one gram per day of vitamin B-5 so that the choline can be converted
into acetylcholine.

Sources: AL721 is available under the name EggsACT from health food stores
and through Vitamin Research Products, a mail order company listed in
appendix A.

DHEA

DHEA or dehydroepiandrosterone (pronounced
dee-hi-dro-epp-ee-an-dro-ster-own) is a steroid hormone produced in the
adrenal gland. DHEA is the most abundant steroid in the human bloodstream.
Research has found it to have significant anti-obesity, anti-tumor,
anti-aging, and anti-cancer effects. DHEA levels naturally drop as people
age, and there is good reason to think that taking a DHEA supplement may
extend your life and make you more youthful while you're alive.
Additionally, DHEA may be an important player in cognitive enhancement.

DHEA protects brain cells from Alzheimer's disease and other
senility-associated degenerative conditions. Nerve degeneration occurs most
readily under low DHEA conditions. Brain tissue naturally contains 6.5
times more DHEA than is found in the bloodstream in order to protect the
brain from aging damage. Dr. Eugene Roberts found that by adding low
concentrations of DHEA to nerve cell tissue cultures he could "increase the
number of neurons, their ability to establish contacts, and their
differentiation." DHEA also enhances long-term memory in mice. Perhaps it
plays a similar role in human brain function (Fowkes, 1988, The
Independent,1989).

DHEA is now being administered to Alzheimer's patients in scientific
studies. People with Alzheimer's have 48% less DHEA than matched controls
of the same age (The Independent,1989).

We don't know what to conclude from this result. Maybe Alzheimer's causes
low DHEA levels or maybe vice versa. We would like to see somebody follow a
large group of people over time and see if people with low DHEA are more
likely to develop Alzheimer's later in life.

Precautions: DHEA use is experimental. Very little is known about long term
human use. Some women who have tried DHEA report slight increases in facial
hair.

Dosage: DHEA is used in ranges of from 50 to 2000mg per day. There is no
solid information indicating optimal dosage for humans, but if you want to
get serious, you can get your DHEA levels tested every few months (for
about $65), each time raising the amount of DHEA you take. Stop increasing
the dose when your blood levels reach that of a 20 year old human. DHEA has
a dose-dependent inverted U curve typical for memory enhancing substances
(Flood,1988).

Sources: DHEA is now being used by many people with AIDS because of its
immune enhancement and antiviral effects. Non-profit buyers clubs make DHEA
available in the US for these people with AIDS. Try contacting these buyers
groups: Alliance 7 in San Diego, 6I9-28I-5360; Healing Alternatives
Foundation in San Francisco, 4I5-626-23I6; or the PWA Health Group in New
York, 2I2-532-0363. You can fmd more information about these buyer's clubs
in appendix A. Other names include: Astenile, Deandros, dehydroepian-
drosterone, dehydroisoandrosterone, Diandron, Prasterone, Psicosterone, and
trans-dehydroandrosterone.

DMAE

DMAE, or dimethylaminoethanol, is normally present in small amounts in our
brains. DMAE is known for its remarkable brain-enhancement effects. It is a
naturally occurring nutrient found in seafood such as anchovies and sardines.
Perhaps this explains why fish has often been called brain food.

DMAE elevates mood, improves memory and learning, increases intelligence,
extends life span of laboratory animals (Hochschild,1978), and increases
physical energy. It is used by many people for its mild, safe stimulant
effect and yet DMAE also makes it easier for most people to get to sleep.
Many people report less fatigue in the day and sounder sleep at night as
well as needing less sleep when taking DMAE.

The stimulant effect of DMAE is significantly different from the
stimulation produced by coffee, amphetamines, or other stimulant drugs.
DMAE does not have a drug-like quick up and quick come down. People who
take DMAE have reported that after three to four weeks, they feel a mild
stimulation continually, without side effects. Also, when DMAE is
discontinued, no depression or let-down occurs.

Riker Laboratories developed a prescription drug called Deaner (sometimes
also called Deanol). This substance is the p-acetamidobenzoate salt of DMAE
and has very similar effects. Riker marketed their DMAE-like product for
learning problems, under-achievement, shortened attention span,
hyperactivity, reading and speech difficulties, impaired motor
coordination, and behavior problems in children.

DMAE works by accelerating the brain's synthesis of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, which in turn plays a key role in maximizing mental ability
as well as in preventing loss of memory in aging adults.

Precautions: Overdosage can produce insomnia, dull headaches, or tenseness
in muscles especially those of the jaws, neck, and legs. These side effects
disappear if the dosage is lowered slightly. No serious adverse effects
have ever been reported with DMAE. Patients with certain types of epilepsy
should be closely monitored by a physician. DMAE should not be used by
people who are manic depressive because it can deepen the depressive phase.

Dosage: DMAE is used initially at low dosages with a gradual build up to
500mg or 1000mg per day. In some cases lower dosages can result in a good
response. DMAE can take as long as three weeks to take effect.

Sources: DMAE is considered a nutritional supplement that can be found at
health food or drug stores. It comes in bulk powder form, capsules, or
liquid. Liquid DMAE may spoil if left open or if stored at high
temperatures. Keep it tightly sealed in the refrigerator. For sources of
DMAE see appendix A. Other names include: Acumen, Atrol, Atrol, Bimanol,
Cervoxan, Deaner, Diforene, Dimethaen, dimethylaminoethanol, Elevan,
Pabenol, Paxanol, Risatarun, Tonibral, and Varesal.

Gerovital (GH-3)

GH-3 was developed by Dr. Ana Aslan over 30 years ago in her Romanian
clinic. GH-3 is one of the most popular rejuvenation products in the world.
GH-3 is also said by some researchers to be a powerful long term
antidepressant. Dr. Aslan's findings have been met with much skepticism,
and studies done outside of Dr. Aslan's clinic have had mixed results.

The main ingredient in GH-3 is procaine, which is broken down in the body
into the B vitamin PABA (para-amino- benzoic acid) and DEAE
(diethylaminoethanol). The DEAE molecule is very similar to DMAE (see the
section on DMAE) and has some similar effects.

GH-3 has been shown to inhibit an enzyme called monoamine oxidase (MAO)
which is an enzyme in the brain. MAO breaks down monoamine
neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. As people
get older, MAO activity increases, breaking down these neurotransmitters
too rapidly. Dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine trigger feelings of
pleasure, serenity, and calmness. People using GH-3 report increased energy
levels, alertness, and improvement in mood. These effects may be due to the
MAO-inhibiting action of GH-3.

One study showed that procaine improved the oxygen utilization in the
brains of old rats to levels that were equal to those in young rats,
suggesting that this may be another way that GH-3 accomplishes its effects.

Other studies have failed to replicate these findings about GH-3.

Many of the studies which claim to discredit GH-3 used straight procaine
rather than the GH-3 preparation from Romania. The researchers believed,
for good reasons, that procaine is identical to GH-3. The developers of
GH-3 however, claim that the trace amounts of other ingredients are
significant.

Precautions: There are no reports of serious negative reactions to the use
of GH-3.

Dosage: One GH-3 tablet is taken daily for 25 days. Then no tablets are
taken for five days before another round is begun. In its injectable form,
GH-3 is used every third day for a month, then rest for one month before
beginning another round. This complicated schedule was devised by Dr. Aslan
to allow the restorations of enzymes necessary to break down procaine, and
to "desensitize" the body to the effects of procaine. One of the authors
(Dr. Dean), has found this schedule too difficult to for his patients to
follow. He simply prescribes one to two injections per week on a continuing
basis.

Sources: GH-3 is not sold in the U.S. It can be purchased over the counter
in Romania, most European countries, and Mexico or by mail order from the
sources listed in the appendix. Other names include: Gerontex H3,
Gerovital, Gerovital H3, KH3, and Sex-Ex.

Ginkgo Biloba: A Nootropic Herb?

Ginkgo biloba is the oldest species of tree known, dating back 300 million
years. Extracts from the leaves of the ginkgo biloba tree have been used in
Chinese medicine for thousands of years, and today, European doctors write
over 1.2 million prescriptions per month for it. Ginkgo biloba is used to
improve cerebral circulation, mental alertness, and overall brain
functioning.

More than 34 human studies on ginkgo have been published since 1975,
showing that ginkgo leaf works by increasing blood flow throughout the body
and brain. Ginkgo increases the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP,
the universal energy molecule). It also improves the brain's ability to
metabolize glucose, prevents platelet aggregation inside arterial walls by
keeping them flexible, improves the transmission of nerve signals, and acts
as a powerful antioxidant.

Ginkgo biloba leaf is effective for people with symptoms of reduced blood
flow to the brain and extremities. It has been shown to be helpful with
many of the complaints of the elderly such as: short-term memory loss, slow
thinking and reasoning, depression, dizziness, ringing in the ears,
headaches, and senile macular degeneration (a major cause of blindness).

One study even shows significant improvement in people who have both
Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. In this study 25 people with Parkinson's and
signs of Alzheimer's were given ginkgo extract daily for one year. 1'hey
were tested with standard tests, clinical evaluations, and a new
computerized EEG. The scores improved significantly (Funfgeld,1989).

One study does not prove that Ginkgo biloba is efficacious in the treatment
of these diseases. However, ginkgo is safe, inexpensive and easily
obtained, and people with Parkinson's and/or Alzheimer's might consider
experimenting with it.

One researcher believes Ginkgo Biloba belongs in the class of compounds
known as, "nootropics", even though it is from an herbal source.

Precautions: No negative effects have been reported in the literature even
at very large quantities.

Dosage: Most research has been done with a ginkgo biloba extract which
contained a 24% concentration of flavonoid extract. At this strength, the
usual dosage is 120-160mg per day taken in three divided doses. However,
many ginkgo products on the market are lower in potency. These products are
taken in dosages as high as l000mg per day in three divided doses. Three to
six months use is probably needed to evaluate the results.

Sources: Ginkgo biloba leaf and extracts are available in vitamin and
health food stores. Source Naturals is one company that has a good ginkgo
biloba leaf extract. They have a product called, "Ginkgo-24" with 40mg of
24.3% ginkgo flavone glycosides per tablet. See appendix A for other
sources.

Ginseng

Unlike drugs which are designed to act against a specific disease or
symptom, ginseng has a wide range of uses. Ginseng appears to function by
acting as an adaptogen, a nontoxic substance that increases resistance to
stress. Adaptogens have a remarkable ability to normalize conditions in the
body, restoring homeostasis, and protecting against stress and fatigue.

Ginseng improves brain function, concentration, memory and learning. In
addition, it can reduce or normalize heart beat, blood sugar, and
cholesterol, stimulate metabolic functions, and increase endocrine
activity. Ginseng can stimulate the circulatory system and digestion,
quench free radicals, increase resistance to drugs, alcohol, chemotherapy,
and other toxins. It is known to improve athletic performance, shorten
recovery time after exercise or stressful situations, benefit insomnia and
sleep disturbances, stimulate the immune system, and improve sexual
function. It is ginseng's ability to normalize conditions in the body that
give it this rather long list of benefits.

The medicinal properties of ginseng appear to be due to a group of
chemicals called saponins, also known as glycosides or ginsenosides. These
chemicals influence the metabolism of neurotransmitters like serotonin and
acetylcholine, which are important for optimum mental functioning. Ginseng
seems to reduce the activation of the adrenal cortex, and therefore
inhibits the alarm stage of stress. Saponins also increase the activity of
the lymphocytes, enhancing immune function. Many of the effects of ginseng
are due to its ability to regulate the energy in your body and brain.

Precautions: Individuals with high blood pressure should be cautious about
using large quantities of ginseng. In Chinese medicine, there are "types"
for whom ginseng is contraindicated. Also, Chinese medicine uses ginseng as
a tonic, not necessarily on a daily basis.

Dosage: 500mg to 3000mg per day in divided doses.

Sources: Most health food stores carry several varieties of ginseng. There
is tremendous variation in the amount of active ingredients found in
different types of ginseng and ginseng products. Siberian ginseng is
usually thought to be the best type. For sources of ginseng see appendix A.

Hydergine

Hydergine is reported to increase mental abilities, prevent damage to brain
cells from insufficient oxygen (hypoxia), and may even be able to reverse
existing damage to brain cells.

Hydergine is an extract of ergot, a fungus that grows on rye. Mid-wives in
Europe traditionally used ergot with birthing mothers to lower their blood
pressure. Researchers at the pharmaceutical giant Sandoz analyzed ergot in
the late 1940's looking for blood pressure medications. Of the thousands of
compounds that researchers found in ergot, there were combined and tested
for their anti-hypertensive properties. When studies with elderly people
uncovered cognitive enhancing effects, Sandoz began spending a great deal
of research money on Hydergine. It is now one of the most popular
treatments for all forms of senility in the U.S., and is used to treat a
plethora of problems elsewhere in the world.

Hydergine probably has several modes of action for its cognitive
enhancement properties. Its wide variety of reported effects include the
following:

1) Increases blood supply and oxygen to the brain.
2) Enhances brain cell metabolism.
3) Protects the brain from free radical damage during decreased or
   increased oxygen supply.
4) Speeds the elimination of age pigment (lipofuscin) in the brain.
5) Inhibits free radical activity.
6) Increases intelligence, memory, learning, and recall.
7) Normalizes systolic blood pressure.
8) Lowers abnormal high cholesterol levels in some cases.
9) Reduces symptoms of tiredness.
10) Reduces symptoms of dizziness, and tinnitus (ringing in the ears).

In their landmark book, Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach,
Pearson and Shaw called Hydergine, "the most tested pharmaceutical ever
invented." Hydergine has been proven to be beneficial and nontoxic in
research project after research project.

One way that Hydergine may enhance memory and learning is by mimicking the
effect of a substance called nerve growth factor (NGF). NGF stimulates
protein synthesis, resulting in the growth of dendrites (tiny extensions
which branch out from brain cells making connections with other brain
cells). Dendrites are the communication connections between nerve and brain
cells and are crucial to memory and learning.

Hydergine was the first drug to show efficacy against Alzheimer's disease
(Branconnier, 1983). The literature suggests that Hydergine treatment be
started early in Alzheimer's patients.

Precautions: If too large a dose is used when first taking Hydergine, it
may cause slight nausea, gastric disturbance, or headache. Overall,
Hydergine does not produce any serious side effects. It is nontoxic even at
very large doses and it is contraindicated only for individuals who have
chronic or acute psychosis, or who are allergic to it. Overdosage of
Hydergine may, paradoxically cause an amnesic effect.

Dosage: The U.S. recommended dosage is 3 mg per day. However, the European
recommended dosage is 9 mg per day taken in three divided doses. It may
take several months before you notice the effects of Hydergine.

The effects of Hydergine may be synergistic with piracetam. If you are
taking both you may need to scale down your dosage of both compounds in
order to get the optimal cognitive enhancement effect. Since these and many
of the compounds we discuss have inverted "U" dose response curves you
might even get a reverse effect if you take high doses of piracetam and
Hydergine together. Please see The Use of Cerebroactive Substances for more
on synergistic effects.

Sources: Hydergine is available in the U.S. with a doctor's prescription.
Keep in mind, however, that your doctor may not be familiar with the uses
we have discussed. Hydergine can also be purchased over the counter in
Mexico or by mail order from the sources listed in appendix A. Other names
for Hydergine include: Circanol, Coristin, D-Ergotox forte L.U.T., Dacoren,
Deapril-ST, Decme, Decril, Defluina, DHE, DHET, dihydroergotoxine, Dulcion,
Enirant, Ergodesit, Ergohydrin, ergoloid mesylates, Ergoplus, Insibrin,
Nehydrin, Novofluen, Orphol, Perenan, Progeril, Redergin, Simactil,
Sponsin, Trigot, and Unergol.

Hypothyroidism

One cause of poor concentration ability, mental confusion, and memory
disturbances that is frequently overlooked by doctors is borderline
inadequate thyroid function. Physicians call this condition subclinical
hypothyroidism. Subclinical hypothyroidism is frequently accompanied by a
spectrum of symptoms that include (in addition to mental dysfunction): cold
hands and feet, menstrual problems, dry skin, thin hair, and low energy
levels. In his book, Hypothyroidism: The Unsuspected Illness, Dr. Broda
Barnes described over 47 symptoms that may be related to poor thyroid
function.

Dr. Barnes developed a simple test to confirm suspected low thyroid
function using an ordinary thermometer. He found that in the absence of
oral infection, the temperatures of the mouth and the armpit were identical
when the thermometers were left in place for 10 minutes. He found that
normal values for temperatures immediately upon wakening in the morning
(while still in bed) are in the range of 97.8 to 98.2 degrees Fahrenheit. A
temperature below 97.8 indicates hypothyroidism, one above 98.2,
hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). Because of his finding that the oral
and armpit temperatures were identical, he inexplicably recommended the
underarm temperature taken immediately upon awakening be used exclusively
to diagnose borderline hypothyroidism. It is clear that the oral
temperature taken at the same time serves exactly the same purpose.
Co-author, Ward Dean, M.D. advises his patients to avoid the "ritual" of
the underarm measurement and use the standard oral temperature taken
immediately upon awakening in the morning as a guide to diagnosis and
treatment of hypothyroidism. Treatment of hypothyroidism with thyroid
hormone is very safe. As long as the temperature does not rise above 98.2,
there is no risk of excessive thyroid dosage.

Precautions: Thyroid drugs should only be used under a physician's
supervision. Names of physician's who are generally familiar with Barnes'
method of diagnosis and treatment can be obtained from the American College
of Advancement in Medicine, (714) 583-7666 or (800) 532-3688.

Idebenone:

Idebenone is closely related to CoEnzyme Q10 (CoQ10), a substance that has
been assiduously studied in japan. CoQ10 is an important biological
molecule, and is found in very high concentrations in the human heart. It
has a key role in the creation of ATP, the universal energy molecule. CoQ10
has many remarkable properties, including extending life span in animals,
and curing some gum diseases in humans more effectively than any other
substance. However, CoQ10 has troubled some researchers because of its
ability to metabolize into a toxic molecule with a highly reactive free
radical. Idebenone seems to have all the benefits of CoQ10, yet it does not
create such a reactive metabolite (Pearson, 1989).

Idebenone is an antioxidant. It can reduce the damage caused by strokes
induced in experimental animals. It also improves cerebral energy
metabolism.

Idebenone protects experimental animals from the debilitating effects on
memory and cognition caused by hypoxia (deficient blood oxygenation),
anti-cholinergic substances, and low levels of the neurotransmitter
serotonin.

Low serotonine levels were induced in rats to test the effects of
idebenone. The rats were fed diets with no tryptophan, a precursor of
serotonin. When given idebenone, the rats performed as well on a
discrimination test as rats with normal serotonin levels (Nomura, 1985).
Another study, on seven patients with mental and intellectual impairment,
showed that idebenone can improve neurotransmitter levels in patients with
cerebrovascular dementia, especially promoting seretonin replacements
(Kawakami, 1989). Low serotonin levels in humans are associated with
impulsiveness, bad temper and violent behavior. Studies of violent people
in prisons have found low levels of serotonin metabolites, indicating low
serotonin levels. If you fly off the handle too easily, idebenone could
have profound stabilizing effects on your state of mind. We would
appreciate hearing from anyone who experiments with idebenone for this
purpose.

Precautions: The one safety/tolerance study we could find said that
idebenone, "was well tolerated with regard to the subjective and objective
assessments made during this study.There were no changes in clinical
laboratory values which could be directly attributed to the administration
of idebenone" (Barkworth, 1985).

Dosage: 100mg per day.

Sources: Idebenone is available in Japan with a doctor's prescription, but
         is very expensive. Other names include: Avan and CV-2619.

Phenytoin (Dilantin)

Dilantin is known to most doctors and many other people as a treatment for
epilepsy. However, it has a wide range of pharmacologic effects other than
its anticonvulsant activity. There have been more than 8,000 papers
published on Dilantin and there have been clinical reports of its
usefulness in approximately 100 diseases and symptoms (Finkel,1984).

In the United States the only officially approved uses for Dilantin are for
controlling various types of seizures.

Dilantin has an extraordinary ability to stabilize electrical activity at
the cell membrane. Since most cellular activity is modulated by the
electrical and electro-chemical processes that occur on the cell membranes,
Dilantin has a host of effects and uses.

Dilantin is reported to increase intelligence, concentration, and learning.
In double-blind, placebo-controlled studies, 100mg of Dilantin given twice
daily caused increases in scores on the Wechsler IQ test, and improved long
term memory and verbal performance in both healthy young and healthy
elderly volunteers. Particular improvement was noted by researchers in the
subject's performance on parts of the tests requiring concentration skills
(Smith, 1972,1975). We have heard people report that Dilantin is a fast and
effective treatment for jet lag, lack of sleep, or any situation where you
need more stamina. Several thousand research studies have been conducted on
Dilantin, establishing its effectiveness in the treatment of drug
addiction, alcoholism, psychosis, and hypoglycemia, to name only a few.

Dilantin is of special interest to people who cannot concentrate or think
clearly because of obsessive thoughts, or who experience a lot of fear or
anger. Research done with prison inmates and institutionalized juvenile
delinquents showed that Dilantin decreases violent behavior. Also, in
subjects who were overly passive, it increased outgoing and assertive
behavior. Dilantin seems to have a normalizing effect (Dreyfus,1981).

The Dilantin story is told in a book by Jack Dreyfus, the wealthy
philanthropist who started the Dreyfus Fund. In A Remarkable Medicine Has
Been Overlooked, Dreyfus recounts how he stumbled onto Dilantin as a
treatment for his obsessive depression. He tells of the subsequent founding
of the Dreyfus Medical Foundation, to spread the word about the many uses
for Dilantin.

Dreyfus' descriptions of his own depression and obsessive fear and anxiety
are moving, and occasionally hilarious. He describes being unable to work,
and being obsessed about events such as animals he has seen killed by
automobiles on the road. Dreyfus writes of worrying about a girl that he
met at a party, the daughter of a famous actress. He feared that the 17
year old would fail in her attempt to follow in her mother's footsteps,
and worried about her obsessively for days, even though he had only met her
briefly. The girl was Liza Minelli.

Jack Dreyfus' life was changed completely by Dilantin, and he became
curious about other uses for it. His medical foundation spent $6 million
researching attempting to communicate to physicians the many uses of
Dilantin.

Dilantin also has profound anti-aging effects, acting to restore
neuroendocrine homeostasis that is inevitably lost with aging (Dean, 1991).

Precautions: Like many of the substances in this book, Dilantin can have
paradoxical effects if you take too much of it. Epileptics who must take
very large doses of Dilantin show a slowing of reaction time and a
reduction in intelligence. Dilantin may also cause a marked reduction in
the body's B-12 stores (Newbold, 1972). There are also some deleterious
long term effects of Dilantin such as gum overgrowth. This effect is not
likely to occur with someone who is taking the much lower
cognitive-enhancing doses. The gum overgrowing tendency can also be greatly
relieved by meticulous oral hygiene, to include diligently flossing the
teeth and rinsing the mouth with hydrogen peroxide. Dilantin should not be
used by pregnant women, or people with cardiac, or renal problems.

Dosage: For the treatment of epilepsy, the standard adult dosage is 200mg -
400mg per day in 2 to 4 divided doses. For cognitive enhancement purposes
much smaller doses like 25 or 50mg per day are probably sufficient.
Dilantin is available in l00mg capsules, 50mg children's chewable tablets,
and a liquid containing 125mg of dilantin per teaspoon.

Sources: Dilantin is available in the U.S. with a doctor's prescription or
from the overseas sources listed in appendix A. Other names for Dilantin
include: Alepsin, Aleviatan, Antisacer, Citrullamon, Danten, Denyl Sodium,
Derizene, Di-Len, Di-Lan, Di-Hydan, Diillydan, Dihycon, Dilabid, Diphenine
Sodium, Diphentoin, Diphenylan Sodium, diphenylhydantoin, DPH, Ekko,
Epamin, Epanutin, Epanutin, Eplin, Eptoin, Hidantal, Hydantol, Idantoin,
Lehydan, Lepitoin Sodium, Minetoin, Phenhydan, Phenhydan, phenytoin,
Solantoin, Solantyl, Tacosal, Thilophenyt, and Zentropil.

Propranolol Hydrochloride (Inderal)

Propranolol hydrochloride was for many years the most prescribed drug in
the U.S. It is usually prescribed for the control of high blood pressure.
However, it has one effect that in some situations can be thought of as
intelligence increasing.

Propranolol blocks the receptor site for adrenaline in the muscles.
Adrenaline is often referred to as the "flight or fight" neurotransmitter.
This means that fear (such as stage fright) can cause the body to release
enormous amounts of adrenaline into the blood stream. This was a very
effective bio-chemical strategy when most fear producing situations called
for fighting or fleeing. Unfortunately, fighting and fleeing are of little
help when one is giving a presentation to the board of directors, taking an
important exam, going out on a blind date, or attending a social gathering
with important and intimidating strangers.

Fear causes the body to spiral into an ever increasing loop: more
adrenaline causes more fear, which causes more adrenaline, etc. Propranolol
can help. Blocking adrenaline interrupts the fear spiral. So propranolol is
an intelligence increasing drug when used in situations where fear prevents
one from being intelligent.

Propranolol has one more very interesting side effect: if you use it on
three or four different occasions in a situation that normally causes you
to feel fear, you will no longer need to use it in that situation. For
example, you may have a new job that requires you to give weekly speeches.
If the speeches are in the same room and the same people are there each
time, you will probably not need propranolol after a month or so. If the
fear situation involves new places and people, the effects of propranolol
may not generalize this quickly, if at

Precautions: Propranolol lowers blood pressure. People with hypotension
(abnormally low blood pressure) should not use propranolol. Always take
propranolol with food or you may experience nausea, especially if you take
it on an empty stomach or with just coffee. Do not use propranolol in
situations where you may need extra adrenaline, such as athletic events or
other activities requiring great physical exertion. Propranolol should not
be used by people with asthma or arterial spasms. Propranolol should not be
used by people within two weeks of having taken an MAO inhibitor or certain
other drugs for psychiatric problems (check with your doctor) or during the
pollen season, if you suffer from pollen allergies. Use with caution if you
have chronic bronchitis or emphysema. If you are diabetic, you should be
watched carefully by your doctor. Use cautiously if you have kidney or
liver problems. The safe use of propranolol during pregnancy has not been
established.

Dosage: 10 to 30mg one and a half hours before the event that usually
causes a fear response. Propranolol can cause nausea if taken on an empty
stomach, especially if it is taken with coffee and no food.

Sources: Propranolol is available in the U.S.A. with a doctor's
prescription. Keep in mind, however, that your doctor may not be familiar
with the uses we have discussed. Propranolol can also be purchased over the
counter in Mexico or by mail order from the sources listed in appendix A.
Other names for propranolol include: Angilol, Apsolol, Avlocardyl,
Bedranol, Beprane, Berkolol, Beta-Neg, Beta-Tablinen, Beta-Timelets,
Cardinol, Caridorol, Deralin, Dociton, Dumopranol, Duranol, Efektolol,
Elbrol, Euprovasin, Frekven, Inderal, Inderex, Indobloc, Intermigran, Kemi,
Oposim, Prano-Puren, Propahexal, Prophylux, Propranur, Pylapron, Rapynogen,
Sagittol, Sloprolol, Sumial, and Tesnol.

Vasopressin (Diapid)

Vasopressin anti-diuretic hormone is a hormone secreted by the posterior
portion of the pituitary gland. It is approved for treatment of diabetes
insipidus because it prevents the frequent urination that occurs in this
disease. Vasopressin has also been used to treat memory deficits due to
aging, senile dementia, Alzheimer's disease, Korsakoff's Syndrome and
amnesia. It improves attention, concentration, memory retention and recall
(both short-term and long-term). Vasopressin is necessary for imprinting
new information in your memory.

Cocaine, LSD, amphetamines, Ritalin, and Cylert (pemoline) cause your
pituitary gland to release natural vasopressin at a faster rate. Frequent
use of these drugs can cause depleted levels of vasopressin with resultant
slowness and dopiness. A whiff of vasopressin can transform stimulant
burnout experience in about 10 seconds, because it is rapidly absorbed by
the nasal mucosa, and immediately replaces the vasopressin that has been
depleted.

Conversely, marijuana and alcohol suppress the release of vasopressin. A
whiff of vasopressin when using these drugs will compensate for much of the
dopiness caused by them. Vasopressin is very useful when learning large
amounts of new information. It can increase your ability to memorize and
recall.

Many people have very strong and positive reactions to vasopressin. We
include a number of testimonials in appendix D.

Precautions: Vasopressin occasionally produces the following side effects;
nasal congestion, runny nose, itch or irritation of the nasal passages,
abdominal cramps, headache, and increased bowel movements. Vasopressin has
not been proven to be safe for use during pregnancy. It should also be used
cautiously in cases of hypertension or epilepsy.

Dosage: Vasopressin usually comes in a nasal spray bottle. Most studies
showing memory improvement have been done with a dose of 12 to 16 USP per
day, or about two whiffs three or four times per day. Vasopressin produces
a noticeable effect within seconds.

Sources: Vasopressin is available in the U.S.A. You can buy it with a
doctors prescription. Again, keep in mind that most physicians may not be
familiar with the uses we discuss here. It can also be purchased over the
counter in Mexico or by mail order from the sources listed in appendix A.

Vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone) comes in three forms:
lysine-vasopressin (Diapid, LVP, Lypressin, Postacton,
Syntopressin),1-desamino-8-D-arginine (Adiuretin SD, DAV Ritter, DDAVP,
Desmopressin, Desmospray, Minirin), and arginine-vasopressin (argipressin,
AVP, rinder-vasopressin). All forms have very similar or identical effects.


Vincamine

Vincamine is an extract of the periwinkle. It is a vasodilator and
increases blood flow to the brain and improves the brain's use of oxygen.

Vincamine has been used to treat a remarkable variety of conditions related
to insufficient blood flow to the brain, including vertigo and Meniere's
syndrome, difficulty in sleeping, mood changes, depression, hearing
problems, high blood pressure and lack of blood flow to the eyes. Vincamine
has also been used for improving memory defects and inability to
concentrate. Vincamine has extremely low toxicity and is very inexpensive.

Vincamine has shown some efficacy in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease
(Albert, 1983, Branconnier, 1983). Vincamine normalizes the brain wave
patterns of elderly people with bad memories and alcohol-induced organic
brain syndrome (Moglia,1984, Saletu,1985).

If you have a family member or friend who is suffering from some form of
senility, talk to their physician about vincamine. Its low cost and low
toxicity make vincamine a logical choice to be included in a combination
drug therapy.

We have not found a great deal of research involving vincamine and
cognitive enhancement in healthy humans. We do know that people like
vincamine. People report that the subjective effects are very pleasant, and
that it seems to enhance memory and concentration.

Precautions: Rare cases of gastrointestinal distress which disappears when
usage is stopped. Vincamine has not been proven to be safe for pregnant
women or children.

Dosage: 30mg every 12 hours.

Sources: Vincamine can be purchased in Europe or by mail order from the
sources listed in appendix A. Other names include: Aethroma, Anasclerol,
Angiopac, Arteriovinca, Asnai, Cerebroxine, Cetal, Cetovinca, Cincuental,
Devincan, Equipur, Esberidin, Novicet, Ocu-Vinc, Oxicebral, Oxygeron,
Perval, Pervincamin, Pervone, Sostenil, Tripervan, Venoxigen, Vinca,
Vincabiomar, Vincabrain, Vincadar, Vincafarm, Vincafolina, Vincafor,
Vincagil, Vincahexal, Vincalen, Vincamidol, Vincane, Vincapan, Vincapront,
Vincasaunier, Vincavix, Vincimax, Vinodrel Retard, Vinodrel, and Vraap.

Vitamins

Vitamins are substances that are essential to life. All of the biochemical
reactions that create our bodies rely on vitamins in some way. Some
vitamins delay aging-related intelligence decline and improve intelligence
and reaction time. We include in this section a few examples of the
relationship between vitamins and intelligence. For more information,
please refer to the resources we list in appendix E. Sources for vitamins
are listed in appendix A.

A survey of 37,875 Americans found that 80% of the subjects consumed less
than the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA's) of at least one vitamin each
day (Pao,1981).

Choline, in all its different forms, is often referred to as a vitamin. We
have accorded choline its own section in this book due to its value as an
intelligence and memory enhancing agent.

Antioxidants

Many of the vitamins and some of the other substances in this book, such as
Hydergine, are antioxidants. This means that they prevent uncontrolled
oxidization of molecules in our bodies. Uncontrolled oxidization is caused
by free radicals that are generated by ultra-violet rays from the sun,
certain foods that we eat, cigarettes and other drugs, or even natural
biological processes that are not completely contained by our cells.
Oxidization can create a number of different problems in our brains and
nervous systems.

One example is alcohol induced oxidization. Alcoholics often have wrinkles
and leathery skin caused by the oxidization of collagen and other important
molecules in the skin. Likewise, alcoholics are prone to Korsakoff's
syndrome, a condition similar to senility. Korsakoff's is caused by
overindulgence in alcohol and a lack of vitamin B-1, a powerful
antioxidant.

For excellent treatments of the subject of antioxidants and aging, see
Pearson and Shaw's Life Extension, Linus Pauling's How to Live Longer and
Feel Better and Lord Lee-Benner's Pbysician's Guide to Free Radicals,
Immunity, and Aging listed in the references below.

B Vitamins

B vitamins are necessary for the health of your nervous system, for proper
mental functioning, and many other processes. Because of their many uses,
we have included individual descriptions of five B vitamins. However, the B
vitamins are an interlocking complex. Thus, even if you are most interested
in the role that one of them plays, you should be sure that you are getting
others in the complex by including a B-Complex, or a multiple with
B-Complex in your daily regimen.

B vitamins exert a great influence on fine motor control. One double blind
placebo controlled study found that volunteers who were experienced
marksmen improved their aim signifcantly by taking a vitamin B formulation
containing vitamins B-1, B-6, and B-12. (Bonke,1986).

B vitamins, like vitamin C, are water soluble in your body. This means that
they are not stored in your fat cells. If you take them, divide the dose
into three or four parts and take them with each meal.

Vitamin B-1

B-1, or thiamine, is a powerful antioxidant. As mentioned previously, B-1
can protect your nerve tissues against the oxidizing effects of alcohol,
but it also protects against many other oxidizing agents. Many of the
studies we cite in this book refer to the treatment of organic brain
syndrome, much of which is caused by long-term alcohol abuse.

Dosage: 500mg-l000mg per day. Best taken in 3 or 4 divided doses with
meals.

Vitamin B-3 (Niacin)

Niacin, also called vitamin B-3, has many interesting health benefits
including memory enhancement. In one study, 141mg of niacin per day
improved memory in both young and middle aged subjects by 10-40%
(Loriaux,1985). The study was conducted as a double blind placebo
controlled study.

Precautions: If you have diabetes, high blood pressure, ulcers or
porphyria, niacin should be taken under the supervision of a physician
experienced in vitamin therapy. Niacin is very acidic. People with ulcers
may need to take an antacid such as bicarbonate of soda (avoid antacids
containing aluminum) with niacin. Some people experience a skin flush or
redness and tingling, dizziness or headache for 10 or 20 minutes when first
taking niacin. Flushing is much more likely to occur if the niacin is taken
on an empty stomach. The flushing is not harmful, and should disappear
after niacin is taken for several weeks or so.

Dosage: Most people start off at low doses of niacin (not niacinamide) and
gradually build up to 100 to 200mg per day (For cholesterol-lowering
effects, the dosage is usually 10 times this much). The dosage should be
divided into 3 or 4 doses and taken with meals. Some people may get a
niacin flush with this dose. With continued daily use, you will develop a
tolerance for the flush.

Vitamin B-5

B-5, or pantothenic acid, has many functions in the body, including being a
powerful antioxidant and stamina enhancer. B-5 is essential for the
formation of steroid hormones, making it particularly important for
individuals under stress, since such persons secrete more adrenal cortical
hormones than others (Newbold, 1975). Note that B-5 is essential for the
conversion of choline into acetylcholine.

Precautions: Too large of a dosage at first may cause diarrhea, this effect
disappears with continued use.

Dosage: Most people start out at 100mg and slowly work up to 250mg-l000mg
per day in 3 or 4 divided doses with meals.

Vitamin B-6

Vitamin B-6, or pyridoxine, is necessary for the manufacture of many
neurotransmitters. Without sufficient B-6, your body may not produce enough
norepinephrine, serotonin or dopamine. These neurotransmitters are
essential to optimum mental functioning. Since B-6 is used in protein
metabolism, a high protein diet often causes an elevated need for B-6
(Newbold,1975).

Precautions: People using the drug L-Dopa for the treatment of Parkinson's
disease should not take vitamin B-6 except under the supervision of a
physician.

Dosage: 50mg-200mg per day in 3 or 4 divided doses.

Vitamin B-12

B-12, or cyanocobalamin, stimulates RNA synthesis in nerve cells and
increases the rate of leaming in lab rats. (Pearson, 1982). Many
vegetarians do not get enough B-12 in their diets. The drug Dilantin may
cause a marked depletion of B-12. Low thyroid can reduce B-12 absorption.

Precautions: People with gout should use B-12 only with extreme caution.

Dosage: 1mg (1000 micrograms) per day. Since some people have difficulty
absorbing B-12 orally, it is also available in sublingual form as well as
in a nasal applicator. It can also be given by injection by your doctor.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is a key antioxidant in our bodies,
and is necessary for the manufacture of neurotransmitters and cell
(including nerve cell) structures.

Precautions: If too much vitamin C is taken gas and diarrhea can result.
This effect disappears when the dosage is reduced.

Dosage: 2000-5000mg per day in 3 or 4 divided doses.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is a powerful fat-soluble antioxidant. This may be its only
function in our cells. By preventing the oxidation of important molecules
in our cells, vitamin E slows down the aging process. Vitamin E is found in
high concentration in the lipid fraction of cell membranes. This is where
prostaglandins are synthesized. Prostaglandins are extremely fast acting
hormones that mediate all biological processes, including thought. The oils
from which prostaglandins are synthesized and the prostaglandins themselves
are extremely susceptible to oxidation, hence the high concentrations of
vitamin E in the cell membranes.

Precautions: Vitamin E has no known toxicity. People with heart disease or
high blood pressure should start at low dosages and only with a doctor
supervision. This is because vitamin E can cause a rise in blood pressure
when it is first taken.

Dosage:100-1000 I.U. per day.

Dosage For Vitamins

The "recommended daily allowances", or RDA's, of the vitamins were
originally formulated by measuring how much vitamins Americans normally
consumed. Due to the difficulty and expense of establishing the optimum
dose of each vitamins for humans, the RDA's are actually a statement of how
much of each vitamin a human needs in order to avoid vitamin deficiency
diseases like scurvy. A recent survey of the eating habits of 37,785
Americans established that 80% consumed less than the RDA of at least one
vitamin (Pao, 1979).

There is much research which indicates that doses much higher than the
RDA's have many beneficial effects. By dividing the dose of the water
soluble vitamins, you will assure that your cells have the vitamins they
need all day long.

Xanthinol Nicotinate

Xanthinol nicotinate is a form of niacin that can pass easily through the
cell membrane into the cell much more readily than niacin. Once inside the
cell, xanthinol nicotinate causes an increase in glucose metabolism and a
corresponding increase in ATP, the universal energy molecule.

Xanthinol nicotinate is a vasodilator and is used as an agent to lower
serum cholesterol. The drug has been used to treat insufficient blood flow
to the brain, arteries, and the extremities (Anderson,1987).

A double blind placebo controlled study was conducted comparing 500mg of
xanthinol nicotinate with 141.7mg of niacin (500mg of xanthinol nicotinate
contains 141.7mg of niacin chemically bonded to xanthinol). Xanthinol
nicotinate was found to improve performance of elderly people on a variety
of short term and long term memory tests (Loriaux, 1985). We previously
cited the study by Loriaux in the section on niacin. It shows the
remarkable short term memory improvements in young and middle aged people
using niacin. Xanthinol nicotinate also significantly improved reaction
times in the elderly subjects of this study.

Precautions: Xanthinol Nicotinate may cause flushing or a sense of warmth.
It can also cause heart palpitations, nausea, vomiting, heartburn,
diarrhea, headache, muscle cramps, or blurred vision. These effects often
disappear with continued usage. Some people may experience itchy skin,
rash, or changes in skin color. Xanthinol Nicotinate may cause postural
hypotension (a drop in blood pressure when standing up from a sitting
position) because of its vasodilation effect. Safety in pregnant women and
nursing mothers has not been established. Xanthinol nicotinate should not
be used by people with peptic ulcers, congestive heart failure, severe
hypotension, or liver problems or by people who have had a recent
myocardial infarction.

Dosage: 900 -1800mg per day in divided doses taken with meals. Maximum
dosage is 3000mg.

Sources: Xanthinol nicotinate can be purchased in Europe or Canada or by
mail order from the sources listed in appendix A. Other names include:
Androgeron, Angiomanin, Angiomin, Cafardil, Circulan, Clofamin, Complamex,
Complamin, Dacilin, Emodinamin, Jupal, Landrina, Niconicol, Sadamin, SK 331
A, Vasoprin, Vedrin, Xanidil, Xavin, and Xavin.

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Notes:

In the end of each chapter, there is a huge compilation of references to
scientific medical studies, that proves the authors comments to each drug.
There is also a lot of nice, useful diagrams and molecular structures.
Don't forget that you are also missing all of the reference appendixes.
It's a part of my shareware text concept: If you want the whole book -
then buy it :-) The cheap price is $12.95 + $3 for overseas shipping.

You can get it from: CERI (Cognition Enhancement Research Institute)
                     PO BOX 4029
                     Menlo Park, CA 94026
                     USA

Ask for their pricelist, and a copy of their latest newsletter for just $1.

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